Music therapy is both an allied health profession and a field of scientific research which studies correlations between the process of clinical therapy and biomusicology, musical acoustics, psychoacoustics and comparative musicology. It is an interpersonal process in which a trained music therapist uses music and all of its facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual—to help clients to improve or maintain their health. Music therapists primarily help clients improve their observable level of functioning and self-reported quality of life in various domains (e.g., cognitive functioning, motor skills, emotional and affective development, behavior and social skills) by using music experiences (e.g., singing, songwriting, listening to and discussing music, moving to music) to achieve measurable treatment goals and objectives. Referrals to music therapy services may be made by a treating physician or an interdisciplinary team consisting of clinicians such as physicians, psychologists, physical therapists, and occupational therapists.
In some instances, the client's needs are addressed directly through music; in others they are addressed through the relationships that develop between the client and therapist. Music therapy is used with individuals of all ages and with a variety of conditions, including: psychiatric disorders, medical problems, physical handicaps, sensory impairments, developmental disabilities, substance abuse, communication disorders, interpersonal problems, and aging. It is also used to: improve learning, build self-esteem, reduce stress, support physical exercise, and facilitate a host of other health-related activities.
Music therapists are found in nearly every area of the helping professions. Some commonly found practices include developmental work (communication, motor skills, etc.) with individuals with special needs, songwriting and listening in reminiscence/orientation work with the elderly, processing and relaxation work, and rhythmic entrainment for physical rehabilitation in stroke victims.
The Turco-Persian psychologist and music theorist al-Farabi (872–950), known as "Alpharabius" in Europe, dealt with music therapy in his treatise Meanings of the Intellect, where he discussed the therapeutic effects of music on the soul.[1] Robert Burton wrote in the 17th century in his classic work, The Anatomy of Melancholy, that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia.
Courtesy: VIKIPEDIA
Monday, January 18, 2010
Wednesday, November 18, 2009
CARNATIC RAAGAS
Compiled from international articles on music medicine
Abheri Mental illness / Disturbance (heals the disturbed mind)
Ahir Bhairav Hypertension
Ahir Bhairav Indigestion
Ahir Bhairav Rheumatic Arthritis
Anandha Bhairavi Hypertension
Bageshri Insomnia
Basant Bahar Gall Stones (Cholecystitis)
Bhairavi Rheumatic Arthritis
Bhairavi Sinusitis
Bhairavi Memory, Power and Energy
Bilahari Stomach illness
Chandrakauns Anorexia
Deepak Acidity
Deepak Anorexia
Deepak Gall Stones(Cholecystitis)
Deepak Hyperacidity
Deepak Indigestion
Desh Gives serenity, peace, inner joy, and universal love
Dharbari Insomnia
Dharbari Kaanada Asthma
Dharbari Kaanada Headache
Dharbari Kaanada Hysteria
Gujari Todi Cough
Gunakali Constipation
Gunakali Headache
Gunakali Piles or Hemorrhoids
Gunakali Rheumatic Arthritis
Hindol Backache
Hindol Fever
Hindol Hypertension
Hindol Rheumatic Arthritis
Jaijawanti Diarrhoea
Jaijawanti Headache
Jaijawanti Rheumatic Arthritis
Jonpuri Constipation
Jonpuri Diarrhoea
Jonpuri Intestinal Gas
Kafi Sleep disorders
Kalyani Fear (overcoming fear)
Karaharapriya Depression / Worry / Distress / Neurotic disorders
Kausi Kanada Common Cold
Kausi Kanada Hypertension
Kedar Asthma
Kedar Common Cold
Kedar Cough
Kedar Headache
Khamaj Hysteria
Khamaj Sleep disorders
Madhuvanti Piles or Hemorrhoids
Malkauns Intestinal Gas
Malkauns Low blood pressure
Marwa Fever
Marwa Hyperacidity
Marwa Indigestion
Mayamalawagowlai Neutralizes Toxins & counters Pollution !
Mian Ki Malhar Asthma
Nat Bhairav Colitis
Nat Bhairav Indigestion
Nat Bhairav Rheumatic Arthritis
Poorvi Headache, Anxiety
Punnagavarali Anger and inner violence
Puriya Anaemia
Puriya Colitis
Puriya Hypertension
Puriya Hysteria
Puriya Dhanashri Anaemia
Ramkali Colitis
Ramkali Piles or Hemorrhoids
Rathipathipriya Bitterness / ill wills (especially from married life)
Sahana Anger and inner violence
Shree Anorexia
Shree Asthma
Shree Common Cold
Shree Cough
Shankarabharanam Mental illness
Shankarabharanam Poverty (showers wealth !)
Shanmugapriya Tiredness (energizer)
Shudh Sarang Anorexias
Shudh Sarang Gall Stones (Cholecystitis)
Shyam Kalyan Asthma
Shyam Kalyan Cough
Sohani Headache
Thodi Headache, Anxiety
Thodi Hypertension
Yaman Rheumatic Arthritis
Abheri Mental illness / Disturbance (heals the disturbed mind)
Ahir Bhairav Hypertension
Ahir Bhairav Indigestion
Ahir Bhairav Rheumatic Arthritis
Anandha Bhairavi Hypertension
Bageshri Insomnia
Basant Bahar Gall Stones (Cholecystitis)
Bhairavi Rheumatic Arthritis
Bhairavi Sinusitis
Bhairavi Memory, Power and Energy
Bilahari Stomach illness
Chandrakauns Anorexia
Deepak Acidity
Deepak Anorexia
Deepak Gall Stones(Cholecystitis)
Deepak Hyperacidity
Deepak Indigestion
Desh Gives serenity, peace, inner joy, and universal love
Dharbari Insomnia
Dharbari Kaanada Asthma
Dharbari Kaanada Headache
Dharbari Kaanada Hysteria
Gujari Todi Cough
Gunakali Constipation
Gunakali Headache
Gunakali Piles or Hemorrhoids
Gunakali Rheumatic Arthritis
Hindol Backache
Hindol Fever
Hindol Hypertension
Hindol Rheumatic Arthritis
Jaijawanti Diarrhoea
Jaijawanti Headache
Jaijawanti Rheumatic Arthritis
Jonpuri Constipation
Jonpuri Diarrhoea
Jonpuri Intestinal Gas
Kafi Sleep disorders
Kalyani Fear (overcoming fear)
Karaharapriya Depression / Worry / Distress / Neurotic disorders
Kausi Kanada Common Cold
Kausi Kanada Hypertension
Kedar Asthma
Kedar Common Cold
Kedar Cough
Kedar Headache
Khamaj Hysteria
Khamaj Sleep disorders
Madhuvanti Piles or Hemorrhoids
Malkauns Intestinal Gas
Malkauns Low blood pressure
Marwa Fever
Marwa Hyperacidity
Marwa Indigestion
Mayamalawagowlai Neutralizes Toxins & counters Pollution !
Mian Ki Malhar Asthma
Nat Bhairav Colitis
Nat Bhairav Indigestion
Nat Bhairav Rheumatic Arthritis
Poorvi Headache, Anxiety
Punnagavarali Anger and inner violence
Puriya Anaemia
Puriya Colitis
Puriya Hypertension
Puriya Hysteria
Puriya Dhanashri Anaemia
Ramkali Colitis
Ramkali Piles or Hemorrhoids
Rathipathipriya Bitterness / ill wills (especially from married life)
Sahana Anger and inner violence
Shree Anorexia
Shree Asthma
Shree Common Cold
Shree Cough
Shankarabharanam Mental illness
Shankarabharanam Poverty (showers wealth !)
Shanmugapriya Tiredness (energizer)
Shudh Sarang Anorexias
Shudh Sarang Gall Stones (Cholecystitis)
Shyam Kalyan Asthma
Shyam Kalyan Cough
Sohani Headache
Thodi Headache, Anxiety
Thodi Hypertension
Yaman Rheumatic Arthritis
Tuesday, November 10, 2009
Brain Physiology
The Major Structures of the Brain.
The human brain is a mass of pinkish-gray tissue containing a neural network involving approximately 10 billion nerve cells, called neurons. Glial cells serve as the brain's support system, in addition to blood vessels and secretory organs. Weighing in at a mere three pounds, the brain operates as the central control system for movement, sleep, hunger, and thirst. It controls nearly every vital activity necessary for survival. Emotions are controlled by the brain: anger, fear, joy, love, elation, contentment, and happiness find their origin inside the brain. Furthermore, the brain receives and interprets the multitude of signals being sent by other parts of the body and the outside environment. There are three major divisions of the brain: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
A. Forebrain:
For anatomical study the forebrain is divided into two subdivisions: the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The primary structures of the telencephalon include the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and the limbic system. The diencephalon includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
Telencephalon:
Cerebral Cortex: Likened to the bark on a tree, the cerebral cortex surrounds the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the folded, convoluted tissue commonly imagined when an image/thought of the brain is recalled from memory. The folded, crumpled structure contains an enormous amount of small and large grooves (sulci and fissures) and bulges (gyri). This type of structure is beneficial for it greatly increases the overall surface are of the cortex. In fact, because of the convoluted design the area of the cerebral cortex is tripled!
The cerebral cortex is commonly referred to as gray matter. This is based upon the appearance of the cortex which, due to the predominance of cells appears grayish brown. The neurons of the cerebral cortex are connected to other neurons within the brain via millions of axons located beneath the cortex. This area is white in color due to the concentration of myelin; it is often called white matter .
One of the most apparent visible features of the brain is the division between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Through evolutionary advances the functions of each hemisphere have evolved. Mental and emotional differences between men and women are speculated to result from different modes of functioning between the two hemispheres. In most cases the left hemisphere is deemed the dominant half of the brain. This is due to its superior language abilities as well as its analytic, sequential.
In general terms it is well understood that the left hemisphere controls linguistic consciousness, the right half of the body, talking, reading, writing, spelling, speech communication, verbal intelligence and memories, and information processing in the areas of math, typing, grammar, logic, analytic reasoning, and perception of details. The right hemisphere is associated with 'unconscious' awareness (in the sense it is not linguistically based), perception of faces and patterns, comprehension of body language and social cues, creativity and insight, intuitive reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and holistic comprehension. Communication between the two hemispheres takes place through the corpus callosum, which, by the way, is more fully developed in women than men- likely giving rise to women's intuition.
The surface of the cerebral hemispheres is divided into four lobes corresponding to the names of the skull plates that protect them: the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe. In addition to these four lobes, a fifth lobe exists called the insula. This lobe is internal and is not visible from the surface of the brain.
The frontal lobes went through a tremendous evolutionary expansion 50,000 years ago. Subsequently, the capacities for long-term planning, goal development, and the ability to override immediate gratification in favor for future goals greatly expanded. The frontal lobes are sometimes associated with what it means to be human. Absence of the frontal lobes typically results in a person who is deemed emotionally shallow, listless, apathetic, and insensitive to social norms. According to Candace Pert, "If God speaks to man, if man speaks to God, it would be through the frontal lobes, which is the part of the brain that has undergone the most recent evolutionary expansion." Furthermore, the frontal lobes exert a degree of control over the hypothalamus, which controls the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system, as well as organizes survival behavior. Control of movement is associated with the frontal lobes via the primary motor cortex located within this lobe.
The parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes are specialized for perception. Within the parietal lobe is the primary somatosensory cortex which receives information pertaining to the senses of the body: touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. Visual information is received by the primary visual cortex located within the occipital lobe. Hearing is processed in the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe. The central sulcus (fissure of Rolando) divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The lateral fissure (fissure of Sylvius) separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes. The parieto-occipital fissure separates the parietal and occipital lobes.
The corpus callosum is the primary connection between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Connection between the two halves takes place through axons that unite geographically similar regions of the two cerebral cortices.
Basal Ganglia: The basal ganglia are a collection of subcortical nuclei situated beneath the anterior portions of the lateral ventricles; they are involved with the control of movement. Parkinson's disease has an effect upon the basal ganglia resulting in poor balance, rigidity of the limbs, tremors, weakness, and difficulty with initiating movements. Some anatomists consider the amygdala (primary component of the limbic system) a part of the basal ganglia given its location.
The Limbic System: The limbic system is a collection of brain structures involved with emotion, motivation, multifaceted behavior, and memory storage and recall. The hippocampus (sea horse) and the amygdala (almond), along with portions of the hypothalamus, thalamus, caudate nuclei, and septum function together to form the limbic system. [see question #4 for further information].
Diencephalon:
The diencephalon is the second major division of the forebrain. The principle structures include the thalamus and hypothalamus.
Thalamus: The thalamus is the relay station for incoming sensory signals and outgoing motor signals passing to and from the cerebral cortex. With the exception of the olfactory sense, all sensory input to the brain connected to nerve cell clusters (nuclei) of the thalamus. The thalamus consists of two large connected lobes. The massa intermedia serves as a bridge connecting the two lobes of the thalamus. It is comprised of gray matter and is deemed a non-critical part of the brain; absence of which is outwardly unnoticeable.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is comprised of distinct areas and nuclei which control vital survival behaviors and activities; such as: eating, drinking, temperature regulation, sleep, emotional behavior, and sexual activity. It is located just beneath the thalamus and lies at the base of the brain. The autonomic nervous system and endocrine system are controlled by the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary gland is directly connected to the hypothalamus via a special system of blood vessels. Neurosecretory cells released by the hypothalamus act upon the anterior pituitary gland which then secretes its hormones. Most hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland control other endocrine glands. Because of this the anterior pituitary gland is sometimes referred to as the Master Gland. Hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are also governed by the hypothalamus.
B. Midbrain, The Mesencephalon:
Two primary parts comprise the midbrain : the tectum and the tegmentum.
Tectum: The primary structure of the tectum include the superior colliculi and the inferior colliculi. The superior colliculi form part of the visual system. The inferior colliculi are part of the auditory system. The structures appear as four small bumps located on the brain stem. Function in mammals relates to visual reflexes and reaction to moving stimuli.
Tegmentum: The tegmentum is situated below the tectum. The reticular formation, periaqueductal gray matter, and the red nucleus and substantia nigra are part of the tegmentum. The reticular formation is comprised of more than 90 nuclei and an interconnected neural network located at the core of the brain stem. It receives sensory information and is involved with attention, sleep and arousal, muscle tonus, movement, and various vital reflexes.
The periaqueductal gray matter consists of neural circuits that control sequences of movements constituting species-typical behavior. The red nucleus and substantia nigra are parts of the motor system. The red nucleus serves as one of two major fiber systems bringing motor information from the brain to the spinal cord. The substantia nigra affects the caudate nucleus via dopamine-secreting neurons.
C. The Hindbrain:
Metencephalon:
Cerebellum (little brain): The cerebellum's primary function involves control of bodily movements. It serves as a reflex center for the coordination and precise maintenance of equilibrium. Voluntary and involuntary bodily movements are controlled by the cerebellum. Visual, auditory, vestibular, and somatosensory information is received by the cerebellum, as is information on the movements of individual muscles. Processing of this information results in the cerebellum's ability to guide bodily movements in a smooth and coordinated fashion.
Pons: The pons appear as a large bulge in the brain stem between the mesencephalon and the medulla oblongata. The pons contain a portion of the reticular formation as well as nuclei believed important in the role of sleep and arousal.
Myelencephalon:
The myelencephalon is comprised of one structure: the medulla oblongata (oblong marrow). It is the origin of the reticular formation and consists of nuclei which control vital bodily functions. The medulla oblongata is the control center for cardiac, vasoconstrictor, and respiratory functions. Reflex activities, including vomiting, are controlled by this structure of the hindbrain. Appearing as a pyramid-shaped enlargement of the spinal cord, damage to this area typically results in immediate death.
Part Two: The Neuron:
A. Basic Neuron Description:
A neuron, also known as a nerve cell, is the information processing and transmission device of the nervous system. They come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and types. In the human body, certain neurons reach up to three feet long. While differences exist between particular neurons given their specialization, most neurons are comprised of four primary structures: the soma; dendrites; axon; and terminal buttons.
Soma: The soma is the cell body of the neuron. It houses the nucleus and the majority of cell components which sustain the life processes of the cell. The shape of the cell body varies greatly between the different types of neurons.
Dendrites: The dendrites branch out from the soma resembling branches of a tree (dendron is Greek for Tree). With the exception of sensory neurons, the dendrites are the mechanism through which a neuron receives communication, incoming information, from other neurons. Sensory neurons transmit information where the incoming signal is generated by specialized receptors in the skin. Messages between two neurons are transmitted across the synapse, a junction between the receiving dendrites of one neuron and the information sending terminal buttons of another. Communication between neurons is a one-way affair. Signals are sent out by one neuron through the terminal buttons and received by the cell membranes of the receiving neuron.
Axon: The axon is a long, slender tube that carries information away from the soma to the terminal buttons. Axons are usually covered by a myelinated sheath. The axon carries a basic message called termed an action potential. The action potential is a brief electrical/chemical event which starts at the end of the axon near the soma and travels downward to the terminal buttons. The action potential is consistent; I remains the same size and duration even through axonal branches. Each branch of an axon receives a full charge.
As with the dendrites, axons come in different shapes. Furthermore, the three principal types of neurons are classified by the manner in which their axons and dendrites leave the soma. The most common type of neuron is the multipolar neuron which has one axon and many branches of dendrites. Bipolar neurons are depicted by having one axon and one dendritic tree, each located at opposite ends of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically sensory. They have a dendrite which receives information from a receptor which gets sent onto the central nervous system informing it of external events. Unipolar neurons, as found in the somatosensory system, consist of one stalk containing terminal buttons at one end and a dendritic tree at the other.
Terminal Buttons: Most axons divide and split many times. At the ends of the branches there are small knobs which are called terminal buttons. The terminal buttons secrete neurotransmitters which affects the receiving cell. Neurotransmitters can be either excitatory or inhibitory. The nature of the neurotransmitter determines whether the receiving cell will send a message down its axon and communicate with the connected to its terminal buttons. A single neuron can receive information from hundreds of other neurons thus creating an intricate neural network. Additionally, the terminal buttons of a neuron can form synapses at the dendrites and/or cell body membranes of adjacent neurons.
Internal Structure: The boundary of the nerve cell is defined by the cell membrane. Within the membrane are protein molecules which serve special functions for the cell. Some of the proteins detect substances outside the cell, such as the presence of hormones, and pass the information onto the interior of the cell. Other proteins serve as the cell's gatekeeper, allowing some substances to pass into the cell while barring others. Some proteins functions as transporters carrying certain molecules into and out of the cell.
At the center of the neuron is the nucleus which is round or oval and covered by a nuclear membrane. Inside are the nucleolus and chromosomes. The nucleolus manufactures small structures that are involved with protein synthesis, called ribosomes. Genetic information is contained on long strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which make up the chromosomes. When portions of the chromosomes (genes) are active they cause the production of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA). Messenger RNA exits the nuclear membrane and attaches itself to ribosomes where the production of a specific protein takes place. Proteins provide structure and serve as enzymes, directing the chemical processes of a cell by controlling chemical reactions
Cytoplasm makes up the bulk of the cell. It is a jellylike, semiliquid substance that fills the space within the membrane. Cytoplasm streams and flows, it is not static. Contained within it are small, specialized structures essential for the cell to perform its duties. The small structures include the:
Mitochondria: This structures takes food and breaks it down into energy which the cell can use to carry out its job. Because it has its own DNA mitochondria are believed to have been their own organism which later merged inside of larger cells; a process and phenomenon known as symbiogenesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum is a structure that serves as a storage reservoir and channel for transporting chemicals through the cytoplasm. Lipid molecules are also produced here.
The Golgi apparatus assembles some complex molecules made up of simpler, individual molecules. It makes new synaptic vesicles out of the membranes of old vesicles which have served their purpose. In this sense the apparatus functions as the cell's recycling center. The Golgi apparatus also operates as a packaging facility. It prepares and wraps proteins destined for export.
Lysosomes are produced by the Golgi apparatus. They are small sacs which contain enzymes used to break down substances no longer needed by the cell. Lysosomes can cause cell death or suicide.
The microtubule is the scaffolding of the cell. It is the skeleton of the cell and is involved with the transportation of substances from one place in a cell to another.
Unlike most other types of cells found inside the body, neurons cannot be replaced when they die. All the neurons a person will have are present at birth; once a neuron is destroyed it can never be replaced. In addition, neurons possess a very high rate of metabolism requiring a constant supply of nutrients and oxygen. The needs of the neuron must be met by support cells in order for the neuron to survive.
The human brain is a mass of pinkish-gray tissue containing a neural network involving approximately 10 billion nerve cells, called neurons. Glial cells serve as the brain's support system, in addition to blood vessels and secretory organs. Weighing in at a mere three pounds, the brain operates as the central control system for movement, sleep, hunger, and thirst. It controls nearly every vital activity necessary for survival. Emotions are controlled by the brain: anger, fear, joy, love, elation, contentment, and happiness find their origin inside the brain. Furthermore, the brain receives and interprets the multitude of signals being sent by other parts of the body and the outside environment. There are three major divisions of the brain: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
A. Forebrain:
For anatomical study the forebrain is divided into two subdivisions: the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The primary structures of the telencephalon include the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and the limbic system. The diencephalon includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
Telencephalon:
Cerebral Cortex: Likened to the bark on a tree, the cerebral cortex surrounds the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the folded, convoluted tissue commonly imagined when an image/thought of the brain is recalled from memory. The folded, crumpled structure contains an enormous amount of small and large grooves (sulci and fissures) and bulges (gyri). This type of structure is beneficial for it greatly increases the overall surface are of the cortex. In fact, because of the convoluted design the area of the cerebral cortex is tripled!
The cerebral cortex is commonly referred to as gray matter. This is based upon the appearance of the cortex which, due to the predominance of cells appears grayish brown. The neurons of the cerebral cortex are connected to other neurons within the brain via millions of axons located beneath the cortex. This area is white in color due to the concentration of myelin; it is often called white matter .
One of the most apparent visible features of the brain is the division between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Through evolutionary advances the functions of each hemisphere have evolved. Mental and emotional differences between men and women are speculated to result from different modes of functioning between the two hemispheres. In most cases the left hemisphere is deemed the dominant half of the brain. This is due to its superior language abilities as well as its analytic, sequential.
In general terms it is well understood that the left hemisphere controls linguistic consciousness, the right half of the body, talking, reading, writing, spelling, speech communication, verbal intelligence and memories, and information processing in the areas of math, typing, grammar, logic, analytic reasoning, and perception of details. The right hemisphere is associated with 'unconscious' awareness (in the sense it is not linguistically based), perception of faces and patterns, comprehension of body language and social cues, creativity and insight, intuitive reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and holistic comprehension. Communication between the two hemispheres takes place through the corpus callosum, which, by the way, is more fully developed in women than men- likely giving rise to women's intuition.
The surface of the cerebral hemispheres is divided into four lobes corresponding to the names of the skull plates that protect them: the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe. In addition to these four lobes, a fifth lobe exists called the insula. This lobe is internal and is not visible from the surface of the brain.
The frontal lobes went through a tremendous evolutionary expansion 50,000 years ago. Subsequently, the capacities for long-term planning, goal development, and the ability to override immediate gratification in favor for future goals greatly expanded. The frontal lobes are sometimes associated with what it means to be human. Absence of the frontal lobes typically results in a person who is deemed emotionally shallow, listless, apathetic, and insensitive to social norms. According to Candace Pert, "If God speaks to man, if man speaks to God, it would be through the frontal lobes, which is the part of the brain that has undergone the most recent evolutionary expansion." Furthermore, the frontal lobes exert a degree of control over the hypothalamus, which controls the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system, as well as organizes survival behavior. Control of movement is associated with the frontal lobes via the primary motor cortex located within this lobe.
The parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes are specialized for perception. Within the parietal lobe is the primary somatosensory cortex which receives information pertaining to the senses of the body: touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. Visual information is received by the primary visual cortex located within the occipital lobe. Hearing is processed in the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe. The central sulcus (fissure of Rolando) divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The lateral fissure (fissure of Sylvius) separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes. The parieto-occipital fissure separates the parietal and occipital lobes.
The corpus callosum is the primary connection between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Connection between the two halves takes place through axons that unite geographically similar regions of the two cerebral cortices.
Basal Ganglia: The basal ganglia are a collection of subcortical nuclei situated beneath the anterior portions of the lateral ventricles; they are involved with the control of movement. Parkinson's disease has an effect upon the basal ganglia resulting in poor balance, rigidity of the limbs, tremors, weakness, and difficulty with initiating movements. Some anatomists consider the amygdala (primary component of the limbic system) a part of the basal ganglia given its location.
The Limbic System: The limbic system is a collection of brain structures involved with emotion, motivation, multifaceted behavior, and memory storage and recall. The hippocampus (sea horse) and the amygdala (almond), along with portions of the hypothalamus, thalamus, caudate nuclei, and septum function together to form the limbic system. [see question #4 for further information].
Diencephalon:
The diencephalon is the second major division of the forebrain. The principle structures include the thalamus and hypothalamus.
Thalamus: The thalamus is the relay station for incoming sensory signals and outgoing motor signals passing to and from the cerebral cortex. With the exception of the olfactory sense, all sensory input to the brain connected to nerve cell clusters (nuclei) of the thalamus. The thalamus consists of two large connected lobes. The massa intermedia serves as a bridge connecting the two lobes of the thalamus. It is comprised of gray matter and is deemed a non-critical part of the brain; absence of which is outwardly unnoticeable.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is comprised of distinct areas and nuclei which control vital survival behaviors and activities; such as: eating, drinking, temperature regulation, sleep, emotional behavior, and sexual activity. It is located just beneath the thalamus and lies at the base of the brain. The autonomic nervous system and endocrine system are controlled by the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary gland is directly connected to the hypothalamus via a special system of blood vessels. Neurosecretory cells released by the hypothalamus act upon the anterior pituitary gland which then secretes its hormones. Most hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland control other endocrine glands. Because of this the anterior pituitary gland is sometimes referred to as the Master Gland. Hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are also governed by the hypothalamus.
B. Midbrain, The Mesencephalon:
Two primary parts comprise the midbrain : the tectum and the tegmentum.
Tectum: The primary structure of the tectum include the superior colliculi and the inferior colliculi. The superior colliculi form part of the visual system. The inferior colliculi are part of the auditory system. The structures appear as four small bumps located on the brain stem. Function in mammals relates to visual reflexes and reaction to moving stimuli.
Tegmentum: The tegmentum is situated below the tectum. The reticular formation, periaqueductal gray matter, and the red nucleus and substantia nigra are part of the tegmentum. The reticular formation is comprised of more than 90 nuclei and an interconnected neural network located at the core of the brain stem. It receives sensory information and is involved with attention, sleep and arousal, muscle tonus, movement, and various vital reflexes.
The periaqueductal gray matter consists of neural circuits that control sequences of movements constituting species-typical behavior. The red nucleus and substantia nigra are parts of the motor system. The red nucleus serves as one of two major fiber systems bringing motor information from the brain to the spinal cord. The substantia nigra affects the caudate nucleus via dopamine-secreting neurons.
C. The Hindbrain:
Metencephalon:
Cerebellum (little brain): The cerebellum's primary function involves control of bodily movements. It serves as a reflex center for the coordination and precise maintenance of equilibrium. Voluntary and involuntary bodily movements are controlled by the cerebellum. Visual, auditory, vestibular, and somatosensory information is received by the cerebellum, as is information on the movements of individual muscles. Processing of this information results in the cerebellum's ability to guide bodily movements in a smooth and coordinated fashion.
Pons: The pons appear as a large bulge in the brain stem between the mesencephalon and the medulla oblongata. The pons contain a portion of the reticular formation as well as nuclei believed important in the role of sleep and arousal.
Myelencephalon:
The myelencephalon is comprised of one structure: the medulla oblongata (oblong marrow). It is the origin of the reticular formation and consists of nuclei which control vital bodily functions. The medulla oblongata is the control center for cardiac, vasoconstrictor, and respiratory functions. Reflex activities, including vomiting, are controlled by this structure of the hindbrain. Appearing as a pyramid-shaped enlargement of the spinal cord, damage to this area typically results in immediate death.
Part Two: The Neuron:
A. Basic Neuron Description:
A neuron, also known as a nerve cell, is the information processing and transmission device of the nervous system. They come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and types. In the human body, certain neurons reach up to three feet long. While differences exist between particular neurons given their specialization, most neurons are comprised of four primary structures: the soma; dendrites; axon; and terminal buttons.
Soma: The soma is the cell body of the neuron. It houses the nucleus and the majority of cell components which sustain the life processes of the cell. The shape of the cell body varies greatly between the different types of neurons.
Dendrites: The dendrites branch out from the soma resembling branches of a tree (dendron is Greek for Tree). With the exception of sensory neurons, the dendrites are the mechanism through which a neuron receives communication, incoming information, from other neurons. Sensory neurons transmit information where the incoming signal is generated by specialized receptors in the skin. Messages between two neurons are transmitted across the synapse, a junction between the receiving dendrites of one neuron and the information sending terminal buttons of another. Communication between neurons is a one-way affair. Signals are sent out by one neuron through the terminal buttons and received by the cell membranes of the receiving neuron.
Axon: The axon is a long, slender tube that carries information away from the soma to the terminal buttons. Axons are usually covered by a myelinated sheath. The axon carries a basic message called termed an action potential. The action potential is a brief electrical/chemical event which starts at the end of the axon near the soma and travels downward to the terminal buttons. The action potential is consistent; I remains the same size and duration even through axonal branches. Each branch of an axon receives a full charge.
As with the dendrites, axons come in different shapes. Furthermore, the three principal types of neurons are classified by the manner in which their axons and dendrites leave the soma. The most common type of neuron is the multipolar neuron which has one axon and many branches of dendrites. Bipolar neurons are depicted by having one axon and one dendritic tree, each located at opposite ends of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically sensory. They have a dendrite which receives information from a receptor which gets sent onto the central nervous system informing it of external events. Unipolar neurons, as found in the somatosensory system, consist of one stalk containing terminal buttons at one end and a dendritic tree at the other.
Terminal Buttons: Most axons divide and split many times. At the ends of the branches there are small knobs which are called terminal buttons. The terminal buttons secrete neurotransmitters which affects the receiving cell. Neurotransmitters can be either excitatory or inhibitory. The nature of the neurotransmitter determines whether the receiving cell will send a message down its axon and communicate with the connected to its terminal buttons. A single neuron can receive information from hundreds of other neurons thus creating an intricate neural network. Additionally, the terminal buttons of a neuron can form synapses at the dendrites and/or cell body membranes of adjacent neurons.
Internal Structure: The boundary of the nerve cell is defined by the cell membrane. Within the membrane are protein molecules which serve special functions for the cell. Some of the proteins detect substances outside the cell, such as the presence of hormones, and pass the information onto the interior of the cell. Other proteins serve as the cell's gatekeeper, allowing some substances to pass into the cell while barring others. Some proteins functions as transporters carrying certain molecules into and out of the cell.
At the center of the neuron is the nucleus which is round or oval and covered by a nuclear membrane. Inside are the nucleolus and chromosomes. The nucleolus manufactures small structures that are involved with protein synthesis, called ribosomes. Genetic information is contained on long strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which make up the chromosomes. When portions of the chromosomes (genes) are active they cause the production of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA). Messenger RNA exits the nuclear membrane and attaches itself to ribosomes where the production of a specific protein takes place. Proteins provide structure and serve as enzymes, directing the chemical processes of a cell by controlling chemical reactions
Cytoplasm makes up the bulk of the cell. It is a jellylike, semiliquid substance that fills the space within the membrane. Cytoplasm streams and flows, it is not static. Contained within it are small, specialized structures essential for the cell to perform its duties. The small structures include the:
Mitochondria: This structures takes food and breaks it down into energy which the cell can use to carry out its job. Because it has its own DNA mitochondria are believed to have been their own organism which later merged inside of larger cells; a process and phenomenon known as symbiogenesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum is a structure that serves as a storage reservoir and channel for transporting chemicals through the cytoplasm. Lipid molecules are also produced here.
The Golgi apparatus assembles some complex molecules made up of simpler, individual molecules. It makes new synaptic vesicles out of the membranes of old vesicles which have served their purpose. In this sense the apparatus functions as the cell's recycling center. The Golgi apparatus also operates as a packaging facility. It prepares and wraps proteins destined for export.
Lysosomes are produced by the Golgi apparatus. They are small sacs which contain enzymes used to break down substances no longer needed by the cell. Lysosomes can cause cell death or suicide.
The microtubule is the scaffolding of the cell. It is the skeleton of the cell and is involved with the transportation of substances from one place in a cell to another.
Unlike most other types of cells found inside the body, neurons cannot be replaced when they die. All the neurons a person will have are present at birth; once a neuron is destroyed it can never be replaced. In addition, neurons possess a very high rate of metabolism requiring a constant supply of nutrients and oxygen. The needs of the neuron must be met by support cells in order for the neuron to survive.
MUSIC MEDICINE
Music is like medicine, it’s like first love, like the cold winter night you sat on the roof staring at the sky. It cleanses the soul, the mind and the body.
Robert Plant painfully hums ‘Tangerine’ and I am transported to a place far away “and now a thousand years” seems to be what lies between the present and where I am. I can feel the regret and the pain he suffers and at the end I mourn with him for his loss and mine. Everyone has a favorite song, and that song quietly says so much about you.
In every note and lyric, every scale and beat, a whole life seems to go by; the storyteller weaves his story through the golden threads of clefts and sub clefts, of highs and lows, of the alto and the bass. He tells his pain, his joy, his love, his hate to only you through his music. It is a conversation between two friends, who have known each other all their lives or maybe they have just met. Their hearts open wide; their souls shine through, naked and vulnerable, pure and true. No facades, no pretenses, just two friends, two soul mates connected at a level beyond human understanding and rational explanation.
Whenever I hear the snaky riff of ‘The Man who sold the World’, Cobain is alive to me, in every way that he can be, in the only ways that matter. He stands before me, and in his voice I find truth, a truth that is more true to me than reality itself. Everybody has a songs that keep playing in their heads over and over again, a song that brings tears to their eyes or a song that brings about an epiphany, whatever it may be. A song that brings back old memories and one that seems to hark at the future. You can always associate the way you feel with a song.
When I’m happy the music is blaring, “excuse me while I kiss the sky!” and when I’m sad I have an entire band consoling me softly, “don’t you cry tonight, I still love you”. The song I listen to is a euphemism for my state of mind. It’s the story of my life, or maybe the life I want. Music gives you eyes, so you can not just see but look. It gives you wings so you can be free. And it gives you company, because when you are sad “you can always go to the record store and meet your friends”.
John Lennon wasn’t ashamed of being a dreamer, and as his fingers danced along the piano, he urged the whole world to do just one simple thing-imagine! And he made it sound so easy. Everyone who heard his plea couldn’t help but believe that maybe one day it won’t be just a dream. “Picture yourself in a boat on a river with tangerine trees and marmalade skies”. Till today I think there are people who still choose to live in this world over the real one. Music gives you the power to be whoever you want to be.
“Whenever I’m sad she comes to me, with a thousand miles she gives to me free, it’s alright she says, it’s alright, take anything from me, anything”. Was Jimi Hendrix talking about the same thing? About how a song can make you smile, about how it plays innocently yet meaningfully and leaves it to you to make whatever you want of it, love it or leave it, but it will always be true, giving you its all, playing over and over again, just the same. The great musicians are only the medium; they are messengers who bring about a revelation in us, who take us to a higher plane, the one that exists within us. They teach us how to suffer greatly, and have the courage to sing about our pain. Through their melody they tell us not to take the easy way out, and at the end of a song the training voice of a screaming vocalist urges us not to emulate his life but to learn from his mistakes and grow. Just as a friend would want us to. “this is the end my beautiful friend, it hurts to set you free, but you won’t follow me, the end of laughter and soft lies, the end of nights we tried to die, this is the end”.
Their music is life giving, as well as life taking, their pain is empowering yet weakening, and their happiness is great but momentary. “With every mistake we must surely be learning”. Taking life and running with it, making whatever you want of it. Live and learn, listen and grow. Music is all about that.
Robert Plant painfully hums ‘Tangerine’ and I am transported to a place far away “and now a thousand years” seems to be what lies between the present and where I am. I can feel the regret and the pain he suffers and at the end I mourn with him for his loss and mine. Everyone has a favorite song, and that song quietly says so much about you.
In every note and lyric, every scale and beat, a whole life seems to go by; the storyteller weaves his story through the golden threads of clefts and sub clefts, of highs and lows, of the alto and the bass. He tells his pain, his joy, his love, his hate to only you through his music. It is a conversation between two friends, who have known each other all their lives or maybe they have just met. Their hearts open wide; their souls shine through, naked and vulnerable, pure and true. No facades, no pretenses, just two friends, two soul mates connected at a level beyond human understanding and rational explanation.
Whenever I hear the snaky riff of ‘The Man who sold the World’, Cobain is alive to me, in every way that he can be, in the only ways that matter. He stands before me, and in his voice I find truth, a truth that is more true to me than reality itself. Everybody has a songs that keep playing in their heads over and over again, a song that brings tears to their eyes or a song that brings about an epiphany, whatever it may be. A song that brings back old memories and one that seems to hark at the future. You can always associate the way you feel with a song.
When I’m happy the music is blaring, “excuse me while I kiss the sky!” and when I’m sad I have an entire band consoling me softly, “don’t you cry tonight, I still love you”. The song I listen to is a euphemism for my state of mind. It’s the story of my life, or maybe the life I want. Music gives you eyes, so you can not just see but look. It gives you wings so you can be free. And it gives you company, because when you are sad “you can always go to the record store and meet your friends”.
John Lennon wasn’t ashamed of being a dreamer, and as his fingers danced along the piano, he urged the whole world to do just one simple thing-imagine! And he made it sound so easy. Everyone who heard his plea couldn’t help but believe that maybe one day it won’t be just a dream. “Picture yourself in a boat on a river with tangerine trees and marmalade skies”. Till today I think there are people who still choose to live in this world over the real one. Music gives you the power to be whoever you want to be.
“Whenever I’m sad she comes to me, with a thousand miles she gives to me free, it’s alright she says, it’s alright, take anything from me, anything”. Was Jimi Hendrix talking about the same thing? About how a song can make you smile, about how it plays innocently yet meaningfully and leaves it to you to make whatever you want of it, love it or leave it, but it will always be true, giving you its all, playing over and over again, just the same. The great musicians are only the medium; they are messengers who bring about a revelation in us, who take us to a higher plane, the one that exists within us. They teach us how to suffer greatly, and have the courage to sing about our pain. Through their melody they tell us not to take the easy way out, and at the end of a song the training voice of a screaming vocalist urges us not to emulate his life but to learn from his mistakes and grow. Just as a friend would want us to. “this is the end my beautiful friend, it hurts to set you free, but you won’t follow me, the end of laughter and soft lies, the end of nights we tried to die, this is the end”.
Their music is life giving, as well as life taking, their pain is empowering yet weakening, and their happiness is great but momentary. “With every mistake we must surely be learning”. Taking life and running with it, making whatever you want of it. Live and learn, listen and grow. Music is all about that.
Monday, November 9, 2009
MUSIC TIPS
The following are general guidelines to maximize the effectiveness of the music.
To wash away stress, try taking a 20-minute "sound bath." Put some relaxing music on your stereo, then lie in a comfortable position on a couch or on the floor near the speakers. For a deeper experience, you can wear headphones to focus your attention and to avoid distraction.
Choose music with a slow rhythm - slower than the natural heart beat which is about 72 beats per minute. Music that has repeating or cyclical pattern is found to be effective in most people.
As the music plays, allow it to wash over you, rinsing off the stress from the day. Focus on your breathing, letting it deepen, slow and become regular. Concentrate on the silence between the notes in the music; this keeps you from analyzing the music and makes relaxation more complete.
If you need a stimulation after a day of work, go for a faster music rather than slow calming music.
When going gets tough, go for a music you are familiar with - such as a childhood favorite or favorite oldies. Familiarity often breeds calmness.
Take walks with your favorite music playing on the walkman. Inhale and exhale in tune with the music. Let the music takes you. This is a great stress reliever by combining exercise (brisk walk), imagery and music.
Listening to the sounds of nature, such as ocean waves or the calm of a deep forest, can reduce stress. Try taking a 15- to 20-minute walk if you're near the seashore or a quiet patch of woods. If not, you can buy tapes of these sounds in many music stores
To wash away stress, try taking a 20-minute "sound bath." Put some relaxing music on your stereo, then lie in a comfortable position on a couch or on the floor near the speakers. For a deeper experience, you can wear headphones to focus your attention and to avoid distraction.
Choose music with a slow rhythm - slower than the natural heart beat which is about 72 beats per minute. Music that has repeating or cyclical pattern is found to be effective in most people.
As the music plays, allow it to wash over you, rinsing off the stress from the day. Focus on your breathing, letting it deepen, slow and become regular. Concentrate on the silence between the notes in the music; this keeps you from analyzing the music and makes relaxation more complete.
If you need a stimulation after a day of work, go for a faster music rather than slow calming music.
When going gets tough, go for a music you are familiar with - such as a childhood favorite or favorite oldies. Familiarity often breeds calmness.
Take walks with your favorite music playing on the walkman. Inhale and exhale in tune with the music. Let the music takes you. This is a great stress reliever by combining exercise (brisk walk), imagery and music.
Listening to the sounds of nature, such as ocean waves or the calm of a deep forest, can reduce stress. Try taking a 15- to 20-minute walk if you're near the seashore or a quiet patch of woods. If not, you can buy tapes of these sounds in many music stores
Music Therapy for Autism
professional who specializes in autism can suggest different treatment for autistic’s that can have a significant positive effect on their behavior. One such treatment is Music therapy.
Music therapy is a controlled music experience that is used to facilitate positive change in human behavior. Each session of music therapy is carefully planned, carried out, and evaluated to suit the specific needs of each patient. Music therapy can include any of the following musical activities:
• Listening to music and/or musical creation
• Playing musical instruments (any instrument can be used)
• Moving to music
• Singing
As far as autism is concerned, studies have shown that music therapy has a significant, positive influence when used to treat autistic individuals. Participating in music therapy allows autistics the opportunity to experience non-threatening outside stimulation, as they don’t engage in direct human contact.
As was previously mentioned, music therapy is made specific to each individual. This is extremely important, because what may be positively received by one autistic may be negative to another. That being said, let’s take a look at the positive influence music therapy has had on autistic individuals.
Music therapy -
Improved socio-emotional development: In the first steps of a relationship, autistics tend to physically ignore or reject the attempts of social contact made by others. Music therapy helps to stop this social withdrawal by an initial object relation with a musical instrument. Instead of seeing the instrument as threatening, autistic children are usually fascinated by the shape, feel and sound of it. Therefore, the musical instrument provides an initial point of contact between the autistic and the other individual by acting as an intermediary.
Assisted in both verbal and non-verbal communication – When music therapy is used to aid in communication, its goal is to improve the production of vocalization and speech, as well as stimulate the mental process of comprehending, conceptualizing and symbolizing. A music therapist will attempt to establish a communicative relationship between the behavior of a child with autism and a specific sound. An autistic person may have an easier time recognizing or being more open to these sounds than they would to a verbal approach. This musical awareness, and the relationship between the autistics’ actions and the music, has potential to encourage communication.
Another form of music therapy that may help with communication is to play a wind instrument (IE flute). It is thought that by playing such an instrument, you become aware of the functioning of your teeth, jaws, lips and tongue. Thus, playing a wind instrument almost mirrors the functioning required in order to produce speech vocalizations.
Encouraged emotional fulfillment – Most autistics lack the ability to affectively respond to stimuli that would otherwise allow them to enjoy an appropriate emotional charge. Thus, since most autistics respond well to music stimuli, music therapy has been able to provide autistics with an environment that is free of fear, stimuli considered threatening, etc.
During a music therapy session, an autistic individual has the freedom to behave in specific ways that allow them to discover and express themselves when they want and choose. They can make noise, bang instruments, shout and express and experience the pleasure of emotional satisfaction.
Musical therapy has also helped autistic individuals by:
• Teaching social skills
• Improving language comprehension
• Encouraging the desire to communicate
• Making creative-self expression possible
• Reducing non-communicative speech
• Decreasing echolalia (uncontrolled and instant repetition of the words spoken by another)
Keep in mind that although music therapy can have positive effects on autistic individuals, it is vital that an autistic receives such treatment from a trained and experienced musical therapist.
Music therapy is a controlled music experience that is used to facilitate positive change in human behavior. Each session of music therapy is carefully planned, carried out, and evaluated to suit the specific needs of each patient. Music therapy can include any of the following musical activities:
• Listening to music and/or musical creation
• Playing musical instruments (any instrument can be used)
• Moving to music
• Singing
As far as autism is concerned, studies have shown that music therapy has a significant, positive influence when used to treat autistic individuals. Participating in music therapy allows autistics the opportunity to experience non-threatening outside stimulation, as they don’t engage in direct human contact.
As was previously mentioned, music therapy is made specific to each individual. This is extremely important, because what may be positively received by one autistic may be negative to another. That being said, let’s take a look at the positive influence music therapy has had on autistic individuals.
Music therapy -
Improved socio-emotional development: In the first steps of a relationship, autistics tend to physically ignore or reject the attempts of social contact made by others. Music therapy helps to stop this social withdrawal by an initial object relation with a musical instrument. Instead of seeing the instrument as threatening, autistic children are usually fascinated by the shape, feel and sound of it. Therefore, the musical instrument provides an initial point of contact between the autistic and the other individual by acting as an intermediary.
Assisted in both verbal and non-verbal communication – When music therapy is used to aid in communication, its goal is to improve the production of vocalization and speech, as well as stimulate the mental process of comprehending, conceptualizing and symbolizing. A music therapist will attempt to establish a communicative relationship between the behavior of a child with autism and a specific sound. An autistic person may have an easier time recognizing or being more open to these sounds than they would to a verbal approach. This musical awareness, and the relationship between the autistics’ actions and the music, has potential to encourage communication.
Another form of music therapy that may help with communication is to play a wind instrument (IE flute). It is thought that by playing such an instrument, you become aware of the functioning of your teeth, jaws, lips and tongue. Thus, playing a wind instrument almost mirrors the functioning required in order to produce speech vocalizations.
Encouraged emotional fulfillment – Most autistics lack the ability to affectively respond to stimuli that would otherwise allow them to enjoy an appropriate emotional charge. Thus, since most autistics respond well to music stimuli, music therapy has been able to provide autistics with an environment that is free of fear, stimuli considered threatening, etc.
During a music therapy session, an autistic individual has the freedom to behave in specific ways that allow them to discover and express themselves when they want and choose. They can make noise, bang instruments, shout and express and experience the pleasure of emotional satisfaction.
Musical therapy has also helped autistic individuals by:
• Teaching social skills
• Improving language comprehension
• Encouraging the desire to communicate
• Making creative-self expression possible
• Reducing non-communicative speech
• Decreasing echolalia (uncontrolled and instant repetition of the words spoken by another)
Keep in mind that although music therapy can have positive effects on autistic individuals, it is vital that an autistic receives such treatment from a trained and experienced musical therapist.
The Autonomic Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System
The second part of the nervous system to have a particularly powerful part to play in our emotional life is the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is composed of two parts, which function primarily in opposition to each other. The first is the sympathetic nervous system, which starts in the spinal cord and travels to a variety of areas of the body. Its function appears to be preparing the body for the kinds of vigorous activities associated with “fight or flight,” that is, with running from danger or with preparing for violence.
Activation of the sympathetic nervous system has the following effects:
dilates the pupils
opens the eyelids
stimulates the sweat glands
dilates the blood vessels in large muscles
constricts the blood vessels in the rest of the body
increases the heart rate
opens up the bronchial tubes of the lungs
inhibits the secretions in the digestive system
One of its most important effects is causing the adrenal glands (which sit on top of the kidneys) to release epinephrine (aka adrenalin) into the blood stream. Epinephrine is a powerful hormone that causes various parts of the body to respond in much the same way as the sympathetic nervous system. Being in the blood stream, it takes a bit longer to stop its effects. This is why, when you get upset, it sometimes takes a while before you can calm yourself down again!
The sympathetic nervous system also takes in information, mostly concerning pain from internal organs. Because the nerves that carry information about organ pain often travel along the same paths that carry information about pain from more surface areas of the body, the information sometimes get confused. This is called referred pain, and the best known example is the pain some people feel in the left shoulder and arm when they are having a heart attack.
The other part of the autonomic nervous system is called the parasympathetic nervous system. It has its roots in the brainstem and in the spinal cord of the lower back. Its function is to bring the body back from the emergency status that the sympathetic nervous system puts it into.
Some of the details of parasympathetic arousal include...
pupil constriction
activation of the salivary glands
stimulating the secretions of the stomach
stimulating the activity of the intestines
stimulating secretions in the lungs
constricting the bronchial tubes
decreasing heart rate
The parasympathetic nervous system also has some sensory abilities: It receives information about blood pressure, levels of carbon dioxide in the blood, and so on.
There is actually one more part of the autonomic nervous system that we don't mention too often: The enteric nervous system. This is a complex of nerves that regulate the activity of the stomach. When you get sick to your stomach or feel butterflies when you get nervous, you can blame the enteric nervous system.
The second part of the nervous system to have a particularly powerful part to play in our emotional life is the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is composed of two parts, which function primarily in opposition to each other. The first is the sympathetic nervous system, which starts in the spinal cord and travels to a variety of areas of the body. Its function appears to be preparing the body for the kinds of vigorous activities associated with “fight or flight,” that is, with running from danger or with preparing for violence.
Activation of the sympathetic nervous system has the following effects:
dilates the pupils
opens the eyelids
stimulates the sweat glands
dilates the blood vessels in large muscles
constricts the blood vessels in the rest of the body
increases the heart rate
opens up the bronchial tubes of the lungs
inhibits the secretions in the digestive system
One of its most important effects is causing the adrenal glands (which sit on top of the kidneys) to release epinephrine (aka adrenalin) into the blood stream. Epinephrine is a powerful hormone that causes various parts of the body to respond in much the same way as the sympathetic nervous system. Being in the blood stream, it takes a bit longer to stop its effects. This is why, when you get upset, it sometimes takes a while before you can calm yourself down again!
The sympathetic nervous system also takes in information, mostly concerning pain from internal organs. Because the nerves that carry information about organ pain often travel along the same paths that carry information about pain from more surface areas of the body, the information sometimes get confused. This is called referred pain, and the best known example is the pain some people feel in the left shoulder and arm when they are having a heart attack.
The other part of the autonomic nervous system is called the parasympathetic nervous system. It has its roots in the brainstem and in the spinal cord of the lower back. Its function is to bring the body back from the emergency status that the sympathetic nervous system puts it into.
Some of the details of parasympathetic arousal include...
pupil constriction
activation of the salivary glands
stimulating the secretions of the stomach
stimulating the activity of the intestines
stimulating secretions in the lungs
constricting the bronchial tubes
decreasing heart rate
The parasympathetic nervous system also has some sensory abilities: It receives information about blood pressure, levels of carbon dioxide in the blood, and so on.
There is actually one more part of the autonomic nervous system that we don't mention too often: The enteric nervous system. This is a complex of nerves that regulate the activity of the stomach. When you get sick to your stomach or feel butterflies when you get nervous, you can blame the enteric nervous system.
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